The Athenians demand that neutral Melos side with them against Sparta. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Constructivists hold that . In this sense, under a constructivist lens, key concepts like sovereignty and power can take on different meanings compared to how they are understood in realist frameworks or defense-oriented establishments. These studies were inclined to treat social norms as independent variables and show how some political behavior is made possible or constrained by such ideational factors (e.g., Barkin and Cronin 1994; Klotz 1995; Finnemore 1996, 2003; Katzenstein 1996; Legro 1996; Price 1997; Tannenwald 1999). This matters because it suggests that international relations is more dynamic rather than fixed. This article aims to illuminate how social constructivism has evolved as a mainstream international relation (IR) paradigm within a short period of time. Theories of International Relations. ), Handbook of military sciences (pp. While this is obviously a false dichotomy and constructivist studies do not treat norms as exclusively internal or external to actors, the distinction matters for how scholars approach compliance and contestation. Finally, the third theory of international relations, known as Constructivism, focuses on ideas, shared beliefs and identity as the main drivers of success. Introduction to International Relations Theory 100% (10) 63. The Pacific Review, 28(1), 122. European Journal of International Relations, 12(3), 341370. On the contrary, the two parts of the norms literature described above tend to find themselves on different ends of the reasoning about normsreasoning through norms spectrum. Interpreting the impact of a norm. When actors follow the logic of arguing, they seek common understandings through discourse and dialogue. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. According to this approach, the behaviour of humans is determined by their identity, which itself is shaped by society's values, history, practices, and institutions. The nuclear taboo: The United States and the normative basis of nuclear non-use. Liberty University International Relations Chapter Four: Theories of International Relations: Economic Structuralism, Constructivism, and Feminism Notes. As Koschut (2014, p. 525) explains, this can transform the behaviour of states from a self-help manner to trust-building. Think here about realist logic at the end of the Cold War with the demise of bipolarity, NATO should have gone the same way as the Warsaw Pact. Rather than passive receptacles, norm takers have a very active role to play in socialization and can influence the meaning of the norms that constitute the very community they are being asked to join (Ba 2006). As states interact with other actors in the international system, their ideas and identity can change over time, which can produce a more dynamic understanding of international relations. Instead, attempts at synthesis of constructivism and rationalism are now en vogue (e.g., Fearon and Wendt 2001; Schimmelfennig 2001, 2005; Checkel and Zurn 2005; Kornprobst 2007; Culpepper 2008; Kelley 2008). They are thus animated entities that strengthen, weaken, and evolve. The norms-oriented work that followed this initial burst of activity in the 2000s built upon the success that was achieved, but also changed the trajectory of research on social norms in world politics to include broader notions of norm dynamics. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02866-4_105-1, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02866-4_105-1, eBook Packages: Springer Reference Political Science & International StudiesReference Module Humanities and Social Sciences, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in London: Routledge. Rasmussen, M. V. (2005). (1996). Norms are born anew every day as actors instantiate them through their beliefs and actions and, as Sandholtz (2008:101) notes, normative structures, in other words, cannot stand still.. This chapter will concentrate on some of the main elements that have relevance for military studies. Realists have traditionally seen neutral states as weak and small, responding only to the external anarchic realm (Agius 2006). (2016). Journal of European Public Policy, 6(5), 721742. For philosopher John Searle, language played an equally significant role. Tannenwald, N. (2017). The norms (both established and potential) meaning, constitutive properties, and behavioral strictures remain unchanged throughout the analysis (Van Kersbergen and Verbeek 2007). Sookermany, A. M. (2021). Consider the shared norms that define military conduct and the institutions that have evolved around military practice; from the Geneva Conventions to the classic texts on warfare that are part of military training, a process of social interaction is taking place where norms are learned, and culture and identity are shaped. If the meaning of a norm can change or if different communities of actors adhere to different norms (or different versions of a norm), then norm-breaking takes on a different meaning. Schmidt, B. Katzenstein, P. J. Both of these critiques run afoul of constructivist logic yet are legitimate given how norms were conceptualized in the initial wave of empirical constructivist work. Hi!Welcome back to the King's College London International Relations Today Youtube channel. Bibliographical References Adler, E. (1997). This suggests that there is something beyond the timeless wisdom of realism that offers only a tragic view of world politics that will never change. Liberal international relations theory and the military. After making the case that norms matter and developing a number of theoretical frameworks to show how norms emerge, spread, and influence behavior, norms-oriented constructivists have shifted their attention to a new set of questions, and in particular compliance with the strictures of social norms and change in norms themselves. Critiques Lack a theory of agency: - According to Hopt (The Promise of Constructivism in international relations theory, 1998), constructivism is an approach, not a theory; or at most a theory of process. An alternative set of norm dynamics may be implicated when one seeks to understand change in norms themselves. This logic structured seminal empirical work that endeavored to show how ideational and normative factors could explain puzzles in world politics (e.g., Klotz 1995; Finnemore 1996). Similarly, treating social norms as static independent variables led to calls for constructivists to define the conditions under which normative and nonnormative influences on behavior are likely to be the most important in determining behavior (Legro and Kowert 1996; Risse et al. Constructivism can explain how identity shapes interaction in the international realm for instance the assumption that when states regard each other as liberal democracies they are less likely to go to war with each other. 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. Critical constructivists prefer to examine state identity in terms of its wider story (Fierke and Jrgensen 2001). How strong is the nuclear taboo today? The causes of the Iraq war. The scope of military conduct can also be institutionalized, and constructivism provides a way to understand such processes. Not all states interpret power in the material or hierarchical sense. New York: Columbia University Press. Constructivism has developed over the years and it is now possible to speak of it in terms of generations. The first generation is identified in the 1980s, where constructivism focused on agents and structures. The main two paradigms is the Realists and the Liberalist school of thoughts. Early constructivist work in the 1980s and early 1990s sought to establish a countervailing approach to the material and rational theories that dominated the study of international relations. As one notable example, Keohane (1988:392) critiqued this new perspective by arguing that the greatest weakness of the reflective school lies not in deficiencies in their critical arguments but in the lack of a clear reflective research program that could be employed by students of world politics. At the forefront of the initial empirical push in constructivist research were the norms-oriented and identity approaches. The traditional theories (Idealism and Realism) had diverted all focus to state and Power. Glanville, L. (2016). All of this came about through processes of socialization and persuasion, where interested groups such as NGOs, epistemic communities, and other actors not only successfully changed the norm around the treatment of civilians and combatants in warfare but instigated this norm as part of identity, and how states define right behavior. Cooperation and Conflict, 49(4), 519535. (1992). The initial empirical norms research tended to simplify normative dynamics to facilitate analysis and dialogue with competing perspectives, treating the norms that they analyzed as relatively static entities with relatively specific meanings and strictures. Constructivists say that to understand these sorts of questions, one cannot simply turn to material factors like military power these do not explain why some states are seen as threats and others as benign. Tannenwald, N. (1999). The Sandholtz (2008:121) passage quoted above brings together the two types of normative dynamics discussed in this section. Assuming that actors reason through social norms means beginning analysis with the understanding that the very way that actors view and understand the world is shaped by social norms. However, the separation between the two kinds of norms research discussed above may ultimately be artificial. Understanding how ideas about danger and threat are socially constructed, and how states form social relations in the international system is a key starting point in discussions about global security. Constructivisms overwhelming focus on the state and state agents obscures other actors and processes. Instead of calculating what is best for improving its utility, an actor motivated by the logic of appropriateness will instead reason what actors like me should do. Berger, T. U. While it is beyond the scope of this chapter to adequately cover these approaches, the Baumann chapter in this volumediscusses securitization; for works on ontological security that speak to international security and aspects of the military, see Mitzen (2006), Krahmann (2018), and Mlksoo (2018).) For the Athenians, the refusal of the Melians the much weaker party to submit and their preference for neutrality was an affront to their power. London: Routledge. Constructivism considers the relations between states (and other actors) as a social realm; less about the distribution of resources and power and more about the distribution of ideas. Under a constructivist lens, the primacy of state survival in realist thought also undergoes reconsideration. PubMedGoogle Scholar. This also goes to the foundation of questions of the causes of war. (1996). The essay proceeds by first describing the initial establishment of constructivist norms research and critiques that flowed from the original choices made. talk, follow norms, create rules, etc.). The superior military capabilities of the USA were a significant material advantage that should have compelled Iraq to avoid invasion. (1998). What does it derive its name from (it's fundamental proposition)? Cham: Springer. Another topic that requires further consideration in future research is the relationship between intersubjective and subjective reality. This social learning aspect differs from realisms prescriptive approach that says nations will follow the strongest militaries to develop their strength and technological prowess with the anarchic structure of the international system guiding this logic. When the Bush administration introduced the category of unlawful enemy combatant in the global war on terror, these individuals were not afforded the protections under the Geneva Conventions (Tannenwald 2017, pp. First, unlike realist theory which sees actors as like units which respond to external phenomena in the same way, constructivists argue that who actors think they are matters. NATO and the New Europe. Constructivism can produce richer understandings of the very basic questions that construct military studies: enemy perceptions, how identity drives threat/amity/cooperation in international relations, how states and actors respond to threat and the meanings that certain types of warfare involve, the stories told about war and what it means to be secure. In this sense, constructivism is really at its core a social theory of international relations because the focus on identity and interactions show how clashes and cooperation manifest in the global arena. In P. M. Haas (Ed. The Peloponnesian War. International Relations is in Social Studies, thus this study field tries to theorize a model that could explain everything that is going on between countries. International Politics, 47(1), 125. In the 1980s and 1990s, efforts to wind back the proliferation of nuclear weapons which by this stage had reached staggering proportions, particularly in the USA and USSR prompted scientists and nuclear experts, civil society organizations, and other actors, to form what is called epistemic communities. Norms, identity, and their limits: A theoretical reprise. Constructivist thought makes it clear that social norms do not exist independently of communities of actors that believe in and enact them. Save. There is significant overlap with the socialization literature here as the mechanisms by which an idea becomes a norm are not all that different from the mechanisms by which an actor outside a normative community is brought within. (2018). Epistemic communities are described by Peter Haas as networks of knowledge-based communities with an authoritative claim to policy-relevant knowledge within their domain of expertise. They share intersubjective knowledge and beliefs and a common policy enterprise, tackling specific problems in relation to their professions (2016, p. 5) to push for norm change around nuclear proliferation and to reduce the arsenal of the superpowers. Our assessments, publications and research spread knowledge, spark enquiry and aid understanding around the world. In addition, the students who took POL487 in fall of 2008 at the University of Toronto provided a wonderful sounding board and inspired feedback for the development of some of the ideas in this essay. Similarly, rather than dismissing the more agentic logics, Pouliot (2008:276) argues that the logic of practice is ontologically prior and it is thanks to their practical sense that agents feel whether a given social context calls for instrumental rationality, norm compliance, or communicative action.. This analytic move facilitated conversation and competition with rational/material theoretical competitors. Early empirical studies of social norms tended to consider social norms as static and relatively specific social facts. The link was not copied. The inescapable tension between general rules and specific actions ceaselessly casts up disputes which in turn generate arguments, which then reshape both rules and conduct. The logical chain from general norms to contestation is not long. In his study of how the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and its constituent states interacted with global norms, Acharya (2004:251) demonstrates that localization does not extinguish the cognitive prior of the norm-takers but leads to its mutual inflection with external norms. International norms are adapted to local circumstances by actors with the ability to observe and manipulate ideas from the external normative context in so doing they alter the substance of the international norm to build congruence. Norms were conceptualized as having specific behavioral strictures (a relatively bounded set of appropriate behaviors) that did not change. ), Routledge handbook of private security studies (pp. Studies of contestation and norm change have begun to examine diverse issues like organizational change in international financial institutions (Nielson, Tierney, and Weaver 2006; Chwieroth 2008); European integration (Meyer 2005; Van Kersbergen and Verbeek 2007; Dimitrakopoulos 2008); environment (Bailey 2008); election monitoring (Kelley 2008); and security (Kornprobst 2007). The International Affairs Forum (2020), states that constructivists use both material and non-material explanations of social constructs. Springer, Cham. This has led the constructivist literature away from Keohanes (1988) original vision of a division of labor constructivists provide insight into what the interests are, rational approaches take the analysis from there (Legro 1996). Does R2P matter? Foreign Policy, 134, 5059. This aspect of the literature is more focused on how actors understand the norms that constitute them and alternatively consider how actors that reason through norms can contest and reconstruct the norms that bind communities together. Altmetric. Zehfuss, M. (2002). What Is Social Constructivism? This logic fitted well with the commitment to mutual constitution (the notion of what is appropriate for different identities is socially constructed) and it also laid the groundwork for the norms-based challenge to strictly material explanations of world politics. This reimagining is not new. In addition to considering how the two types of norm dynamics are related, the current norms literature brings traditional open questions in constructivism into sharp relief. Cham: Springer. He considers that existing norms constrain the possibilities for action, but that different understandings of those norms inevitably arise in the community of norm acceptors. 55K views 2 years ago International Relations Constructivism is one of critical theories in IR criticizing the classical theories. Risse (2000:6) captured the essence of the internal critique when he noted that the logic of appropriateness actually encompasses two different modes of social action and interaction. In one mode, appropriate actions are internalized and become thoughtlessly enacted at times as a precursor to or foundation of strategic behavior (Risse 2000:6) actors reasoning through social norms. Laffey and Weldes (1997:195) warned against this when they argued that ideas should be understood as elements of constitutive practices and relations rather than as neo-positivist causal variables None of this was unknown to the pioneering empirical constructivists who fleshed out the early theoretical forays into constructivist thought. (Ed.). On the contrary, discursive interventions contribute to challenging the meaning of norms and subsequently actors are likely to reverse previously supported political positions. The current norm contestation literature explores processes through which actors come to understand shared norms differently, contest each others understandings, and how the contestation alters/reifies the norms that constitute a community of norm acceptors together (Hoffmann 2005; Van Kersbergen and Verbeek 2007; Chwieroth 2008; Sandholtz 2008). Adler, E., & Barnett, M. But some states refuse to do this, even if it is in their material interests to do so (see the example of neutral states in this chapter). Norms and Social Constructivism in International Relations | Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies Social norms were conceptualized as aspects of social structure that emerged from the actions and beliefs of actors in specific communities; norms shaped those actions and beliefs by constituting actors' identities and interests. The second big claim of constructivism is that ideas matter with rationalist theorizing, material factors take precedence. Contrastingly, neorealist prescriptions of power see it as hard, material, military power (such as large military forces or superior weapons) and are concerned with its distribution in the international system. Captured by Alexander Wendts now-famous maxim anarchy is what states make of it, social constructivism is the idea that the world out there is not given, as realists would argue, but rather, socially constructed. In doing so, social constructivism places a focus on the importance of mutual constitution: international politics is shaped by both structures, such as anarchy, or agents, such as states and other actors. Manchester: Manchester University Press. It derives its name from the . Social phenomenon such as states, alliances or international institutions, are not thought to exist independent of human meaning and action. INRODUCTION T O INTERNA TIONAL RELA TION THEO RIES 23/10/2018. (2019). As Sandholtz (2008:101) puts it disputes about acts are at the heart of a process that continually modifies social rules. Moreover, how NATO made this successful transition and ensured its survival relied on the dominant ideas about how the Cold War ended. What was it all about after all? Like its revision of anarchy as an ordering principle in international relations, constructivism also changed perceptions about the relationship between agents and structures, brought attention to how ideas matter as much as material factors, and how identity, norms, and culture shape global relations. IR: The resurrection or new frontiers of incorporation. Introduction: Reconstructing epistemic communities. This is particularly relevant to military studies in terms of understanding the strategic culture of specific states: culture can have an important influence on how states see security, how they interpret threat and train and organize their military forces. This dynamism, it should also be noted, may not always be positive ideas about security can also regress or become less normative or progressive. (2008b). Its 1999 Strategic Concept altered the organization from a Cold War alliance to something more akin to Deutschs idea of a security community that was based on common values, norms, and identity, making democracy and human rights central. Wendts contention was that rather than see anarchy as a given condition of the international system, ordering relations and compelling states to behave in certain ways to secure themselves, anarchy, rather, depends on whether states buy into this view. The seminal volume edited by Risse, Ropp, and Sikkink (1999) was the fountainhead for much of this research as it provided an explicit mechanism for how a particular set of human rights norms diffused beyond the community that originally endorsed them. The rest of this section explores this distinction in greater detail, discussing the behavioral logics at the foundation of the about/through spectrum before examining the recent compliance and contestation literatures that are developing new ideas about norm dynamics. (pp. Weinhabits world of our making" (Onuf,1989),and setion i . These dual visions of normative dynamics are likely related, but the norms literature has yet to describe how. Following the initial success of empirical norms studies that established the efficacy of studying norms and showed that they mattered, current norms research explores when/where norms matter and how/when/why norms themselves change to a greater extent. PS: Political Science and Politics, 50(1), 7174. Constructivism demonstrates the flexibility and critical stance that characterizes the reflectivist theories by stressing the socially constructed aspect of international realities and highlighting the ever-changing nature of the study of International Relations. To dig deeper into what makes an agent or what structures global politics, constructivists look to norms and culture to make sense of what represents or guides behavior and how ideas of self inform that. Hidden in plain sight: Constructivist treatment of social context and its limitations. Pouliot and Adler draw on Bourdieu to develop a logic of practice and Hopf devised a logic of habit to reflect these concerns. How militaries assess and interpret threat can be related to culture, intersubjective meanings, and social networks and understandings. In R. Abrahamsen & A. Leander (Eds. Second, at a broader level, the current norms literature is wrestling with the relationship between intersubjective and subjective reality. It is especially relevant and pertinent as a tool of criticism of widely held empirical and normative theories. It will then consider some key criticisms of this approach and conclude with a short summary. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Constructivists used this logic in early efforts to contrast their work with more established rationalist perspectives on world politics (see especially Finnemore 1996) because the logic of appropriateness contends that actors in world politics undertake actions that are appropriate for their particular identity. While constructivism has made significant inroads into IR theorizing, it does not mean that it is unproblematic or immune from criticism. In: Sookermany, A.M. (eds) Handbook of Military Sciences. Ontological security in world politics: State identity and the security dilemma. Table of Contents; Introduction to Social Constructivism: Rise of Social Constructivism in IR: Constructivism as social theory: Constructivist theories of International Relations: Social Constructivism posits the argumentation that academic discourse as opposed to political engagement is more fruitful in bringing about lasting and genuine change in global affairs. How militaries assess and interpret threat can be related to culture, intersubjective meanings, and social networks and understandings. Social constructivism is not among the most popular theoretical approaches used in forecasting in International Relations. The culture of national security. Rather the controversies mainly focus on how far one can push one logic of action to account for observable practices and which logic dominates a given situation. The market for ontological security. An example of this can be seen in the case of Libya in 2011, which is broadly hailed as a successful R2P intervention. 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